Rock-Carved Inscriptions of the Armenian Highlands: Sacred Symbolism and Cultural Continuity

Cercetări Arheologice 32.2, 2025, 661-678
https://doi.org/10.46535/ca.32.2.16



Rock-Carved Inscriptions of the Armenian Highlands: Sacred Symbolism and Cultural Continuity

Inscriptions gravées dans la roche des hauts plateaux arméniens : symbolisme sacré et continuité culturelle

Authors: Arsen Harutyunyan Vahe Sargsyan Gagik Sargsyan

Keywords:

Rock-Carved Inscription, Kingdom of Van, Biainili-Urartu, Cuneiform Inscription, Canal, King, Epigraphic Inscription, Khachkar (Cross-Stone), Construction.

Inscription gravée dans la roche, royaume de Van, Biainili-Ourartou, inscription cunéiforme, canal, roi, Epigraphe, khatchkar (pierre à croix), construction

Abstract:

The veneration of rock formations in the Armenian Highland finds its most vivid manifestation also through rock-cut inscriptions. This practice reached particular prominence in the Kingdom of Van, especially from the mid-9th century BC, when, alongside the emergence of a centralized state structure, the cuneiform writing system was also adopted. In the Kingdom of Van, royal authority was considered to have been bestowed by the supreme deity, Ḫaldi; consequently, all actions were carried out in accordance with his will—a principle also clearly reflected in the rock-cut inscriptions.

In any given historical period, the sacred text inscribed upon the rock has symbolized the mutual connection between the spiritual and temporal authorities of that era. This phenomenon remains evident in the post-Urartian and Hellenistic periods, and, ultimately, in Christian Armenia. Although medieval rock-cut inscriptions are fewer in number compared to the pre-Christian tradition, the surviving dozens of inscriptions—mostly commemorative or related to construction—along with rock-cut churches and khachkars, testify to the continuity of the phenomenon and to its distinct expressions across different eras.

Sur le plateau arménien, le culte de la roche a trouvé sa meilleure expression également à travers des inscriptions rupestres. Il était particulièrement répandu dans le royaume de Van, où, à partir du milieu du IXe siècle av. J.-C., parallèlement à la formation d’un État centralisé, le système d’écriture cunéiforme a aussi été emprunté. Dans le royaume de Van le pouvoir du roi était considéré comme conféré par le dieu suprême Haldi ainsi tout se réalisait selon sa volonté, ce qui se reflétait également dans les inscriptions rupestres.

À chaque période de l’histoire l’écriture gravée dans la roche sacrée symbolisait généralement le lien mutuel entre les pouvoirs spirituels et laïcs de la période concernée. Cette continuité se manifeste aussi bien à l’époque post-ourartéenne que durant la période hellénistique, ainsi que dans l’Arménie chrétienne. Bien que les inscriptions rupestres médiévales soient moins nombreuses que celles de la tradition préchrétienne, les dizaines d’inscriptions principalement commémoratives et relatives à la construction, des églises rupestres et des khatchkars (pierres à croix) qui nous sont parvenus, témoignent de la meilleure manière de la continuité du phénomène et de ses manifestations uniques à différentes époques.

Download: PDF

How to cite: Arsen Harutyunyan, Vahe Sargsyan, Gagik Sargsyan, Rock-Carved Inscriptions of the Armenian Highlands: Sacred Symbolism and Cultural Continuity, Cercetări Arheologice, Vol. 32.2, pag. 661-678, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.46535/ca.32.2.16

Bibliography

  1. Astuatsashunch’. 1929. Matean Hin ew Nor ktakaranats (Bible: Book of Old and New Testament), Vienna: American Society of Holy Book (reprinted by the Bible Society of Armenia, Holy Etchmiadzin, 1997) (in Armenian).
  2. Alishan, Gh. 1893. Sisakan. tełagrut’yun Syunyats ashkharhi (Sisakan: Topography of Syunik), Venice: St. Lazaro (in Armenian).
  3. Avetisyan, H., Gnuni, A., Bobokhyan, A., Danielyan, H. 2017. Menhirs of Harzhis, in: P. Avetisyan and Y. Grekyan (eds.) Bridging Times and Spaces. Papers in Ancient Near Eastern, Mediterranean and Armenian Studies, Honouring Gregory E. Areshian on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday: 1-10. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology.
  4. Avetisyan, H., Gnuni, A., Mkrtchyan, L., Bobokhyan, A. 2023. Hin Hayastani “Tsits k’arerǝ” (Upright “Standing Stones” of Ancient Armenia), “Lraber hasarakakan gitut’yunneri” (Herald of Social Sciences), N 2: 198-210 DOI: 10.53548/0320-8117-2023.2-198 (in Armenian).
  5. Badalyan, M. 2018. Biainili-Urartu: Gods, Temples, Cults. 3. Khaldii pashtamunk’ǝ, kerparnern u “tarats’uyt’nerǝ” (The cult of Khaldi, characters and “extents”). Yerevan: IAE press (in Armenian).
  6. Barkhudaryan, S. 1960. Divan Hay Vimagrut’yan (Corpus of Armenian Epigraphy), vol. II, Gorisi, Sisiani ev Ghapani shrĵanner (the Regions of Goris, Sisian and Ghapan), compiled by S. Barkhudaryan, Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR (in Armenian).
  7. Barkhudaryan, S. 1967. Divan Hay Vimagrut’yan (Corpus of Armenian Epigraphy), vol. III, Vayots dzor. Yełegnadzori ev Azizbekovi shrjanner (Vayots dzor: the Regions of Yeghegnadzor and Azizbekov), compiled by S. Barkhudaryan, Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR (in Armenian).
  8. Barkhudaryan, S. 1973. Divan Hay Vimagrut’yan (Corpus of Armenian Epigraphy), vol. IV, Gełark’unik’: Kamoyi, Martunu ev Vardenisi shrĵanner (the Regions of Kamo, Martuni and Vardenis), compiled by S. Barkhudaryan, Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR (in Armenian).
  9. Barkhudaryan, S., Ghafadaryan, K., Saghumyan, S. 2012. Divan Hay Vimagrut’yan (Corpus of Armenian Epigraphy), vol. IX, Loṙu marz (the Province of Lori), compiled by S. Barkhudaryan, K. Ghafadaryan, S. Saghumyan, Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences “Gitutyun” (in Armenian).
  10. Barkhudaryan, S. 2017. Divan Hay Vimagrut’yan (Corpus of Armenian Epigraphy), vol. X, Shiraki marz (the Province of Shirak), compiled by S. Barkhudaryan, Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences “Gitutyun” (in Armenian).
  11. Belli, O., Dinçol, A. 1980. Hazine Piri Kapısı ve Aşağı Zivistan Taş Ocakları / Die Inschrift von Hazine Piri Kapısı und die Steinbrüche um der Burg von Nieder-Ziwistan. Anadolu Araştırmalari 8: 167-179/180-190.
  12. Dandamaev, M. 1985. Politich’eskaya istoriya Akhemenidskoj derzhavi (Political History of the Achaemenid rule). Moscow: Publishing house “Nauka” (in Russian).
  13. Dann, R. 2020. A study of the toponyms of the Kingdom of Bia/Urarṭu, with a contribution by Marie-Claude Trémouille, Serie Orientale Roma, Nouva Serie, vol. 19. Roma: Ismeo.
  14. Diakonoff, I. 1989. On some new trends in Urartian philology and some new Urartian texts. Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 22: 77-102.
  15. Gelb, I. J. 1963. A Study of Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  16. Ghanalanyan, A. 1969. Avandapatum (Collection of Traditions), Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR (in Armenian).
  17. Grekyan, Y. 2021. Dwellings of the Gods: Urartian Temples and Sanctuaries, in: Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (ed.) Archaeology and History of Urartu (Biainili). Colloquia Antiqua 28: Dedicated to the memory of Prof. Altan Çilingiroğlu: 173-203. Leuven – Paris – Bristol, CT: Peeters.
  18. Grekyan, Y. 2024. Vani (Nairi, Biaynili, Urartu, Ararat) t’agavorut’yunǝ (The Kingdom of Van (Nairi, Biainili, Urartu, Ararat)).- Hayots patmut’yun (History of Armenia), vol. I, Hin darer (Old centuries), Book second (IX c. BC – III c. CE): 8-61. Yerevan. “Zangak-97” Publishing house (in Armenian).
  19. Haas, V. 1982. Hethitische Berggöter und hurritische Steindämonen, Riten, Kulte und Mythen, Kulturgeschichte der Antiken Welt. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern in Herder.
  20. Haas, V. 2006-2008. Quelle. B. Bei den Hethithern. Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorederasiatischen Archäologie, Elfter Band, M. P Streck (Hg.). Berlin-NewYork, 2006-2008: 202-206.
  21. Harutyunyan, A. 2021. Hin Yerevani yepiskoposanist yekełetsin. Yerkueresni – Sb Połos-Petros (The Episkopal See of Old Yerevan: The St. Paul and Peter Church Yerkuereni), Holy Etchmiadzin: Publishing house of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin (in Armenian).
  22. Harutyunyan, N. 2001. Corpus urartskikh klinoobraznykh nadpisej (Corpus of Urartian Cuneiform inscriptions). Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences “Gitutyun” (in Russian).
  23. Harutyunyan, S. 1975. Anets’k’i ev ōrhnank’i zhanrǝ hay banahyusut’yan mej (The Genre of Curse and Blessing in Armenian Folklore), Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR (in Armenian).
  24. Hmayakyan, S. 1994. Ishpuini ev Minua ark’aneri barep’okhumneri ts’ragirn u biaynakan petut’yan ev mshakuyt’i goyatsumǝ (The Reform Program of Kings Ishpuini and Minua and the Emergence of the Biainili State and Culture), “Hayastani Hantapetut’yunum 1991-1992 tt’. dashtayin hnagitakan ashkhatank’neri ardyunk’nerin nvirvats’ gitakan nstashrjan` nvirvats’ G. Tiratsyani hishatakin” (Scientific Session Dedicated to the Results of Field Archaeological Work in the Republic of Armenia in 1991-1992, Dedicated to the Memory of G. Tiratsyan), Abstracts: 18-22 (in Armenian).
  25. Hmayakyan, S. 1990. Vani t’agavorut’yan petakan kronǝ (The State Religion of the Kingdom of Van). Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia (in Armenian).
  26. Hmayakyan, S. 2024. Vani t’agavorut’yan petakan kargǝ ev tntesut’yunǝ (The State Order and Economy of the Kingdom of Van).- Hayots patmut’yun (History of Armenia), vol. I, Hin darer (Old centuries), Book second (IX c. BC – III c. CE): 62-75. Yerevan. “Zangak-97” Publishing house, (in Armenian).
  27. Işik, F. 1995. Die offenen Felsheiligtümer Urartus und ihre Beziehungen ze denen der Hethiter un Phryger, Documenta Asiana, vol. II. Rome: Gruppo editoriale internazionale.
  28. Karakhanyan, G., Safyan, P. 1970. Syunik’i zhayŕapatkernerǝ (The Petroglyphs of Syunik), “Hayastani hnagitakan hushardzannerǝ” (The Archaeological Monuments of Armenia), vol. 4, Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR (in Armenian).
  29. K’ajberuni, 2003. Chanaparhordakan nkatołut’yunner (Travel notes), prepared for publication by A. Kalantaryan, G. Sargsyan, H. Melkonyan, Yerevan: “Mughni” publ. house (in Armenian).
  30. Kent, R. 1953. Old Persian. Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. New Haven: American Oriental Society.
  31. Khachatryan, A. 1987. Corpus arabskikh nadpisej Armenii VIII-XVI vv. (Corpus of Arabic Inscriptions of Armenia in VIII-XVI cc.), vol. I, Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR (in Russian).
  32. Krebernik, M. 2002. Von Zahlsymbolen zur Keilschrift, in: E. Greber e. al. (Hgg.) Materialität und Medialität von Schrift: 51-71. Bielefeld: Aisthesis Verlag.
  33. Lehmann-Haupt, C. F. 1910. Armenien einst und jetzt, Bd. I. Berlin: B. Behr’s Verlag.
  34. Lehmann-Haupt, C. F. 1926. Armenien einst und jetzt, Bd. II/1. Berlin-Leipzig: B. Behr’s Verlag.
  35. Lion, B. 2011. Literacy and Gender, in: K. Radner and E. Robson (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture: 90-112. Oxford University Press
  36. Linke, J. 2015. Das Charisma der Könige: Zur Konzeption des altorientalischen Königtums im Hinblick auf Urartu. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
  37. Marr, N., Orbeli, I. 1922. Arkheologich’eskaja ēkspeditsiya 1916 g. v’ Van’: Raskopki dvukh’ nish’ na Vanskoj Skal’ i nadpisi Sardura Vtorogo iz’ raskopok’ zapadnoj nishi (Archaeological expedition of 1916 to Van. Excavations of two niches on the Van Rock and the inscription of Sardur II from the excavations of the western niche). Peterburg: Academic press (in Russian).
  38. Martirosyan, A. 1974. Argishtikhinili, “Arkheologich’eskie pamyatniki Armenii” (The Archaeological Monuments of Armenia), vol. 8, Urartskie pamyatniki (Urartian Monuments), I. Yerevan: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR (in Russian).
  39. Mayer, W. 1995. Politik und Kriegskunst der Assyrer. Münster: Ugarit Verlag.
  40. Mayer, W. 2013. Die assyrisch-urartäischen Bilinguen, Assyrien und Urarţu II. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag.
  41. Melikishvili, G. 1960. Urartskie klinoobraznye nadpisi (Urartian Cuneiform Inscriptions). Moscow: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the SSSR (in Russian).
  42. Petrosyan, H. 2008. Khach’k’ar. Ts’agumǝ, gorts’aṙuyt’ǝ, patkeragrut’yunǝ, imastabanut’yunǝ (Khachkar: the Origins, Functions, Iconography, Semantics). Yerevan: Printinfo (in Armenian).
  43. Radner, K. 2005. Die Macht des Namens: altorientalische Strategien zur Selbsterhaltung. SANTAG: Arbeiten und Untersuchungen zur Keilschriftkunde 8. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
  44. Riemschneider, M. 1965. Urartäische Bauten in den Königsinschriften. Orientalia NS. 34, 3: 312-335.
  45. Saggs, G. 2023. Povsednevnaya zhizn’ Vavilona i Acirii: Byt, religiya, kul’tura (Everyday life in Babylon and Assyria. Everyday life, religion, culture). Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf (in Russian).
  46. Salvini, M.1989. Le panthéon de l’Urartu et le fondément de l’état. Studi epigrafici e liguistici sul Vicino Oriente antico 6: 79–89.
  47. Salvini, M. 1995. Geschichte und Kultur der Urartäer. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaf.
  48. Salvini, M. 2005a. Urartu. La scoperta di due iscrizioni rupestri in Iran e in Turchia. Studi Micenei ed Egeo- Anatolici 47: 241–256.
  49. Salvini, M. 2005b. Studi preparatorî per il “Corpus dei testi urartei” (CTU). Ricerche del 2004 e 2005 in Turchia orientale. Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 47: 257-252.
  50. Salvini, M. 2018. Corpus dei testi urartei, vol. V, Revisione delle epigrafi e nuovi testi su pietra e roccia (CTU A), dizionario urarteo, schizzo grammaticale della lingua Urartea. Paris. Éditions de Boccard.
  51. Salvini, M. 2019. The rock niche of the Urartian king Minua at Ain-e Rum in Iranian Azerbeijan, in: Y. Hassanzadeh and A. Vahdati (eds.) Proceedings of the international Conference on The Iron Age in Western Iran and Neighbouring Regions, 2-3 Nov. 2019, Kurdistan University, Sanandaj, Iran, vol. 2: 80-93. Tehran and Sanandaj:
  52. Salvini, M. 2021. Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kultur des alten Iran und benachbarter Gebiete. Festschrift für Rüdiger Schmitt: 225-240.
  53. Sargsyan, G., Harutyunyan, A. 2015. Excavations of the Single-Nave Church of Mirak, 2012-2013, “Aramazd”, AJNES IX/1, 177–193.
  54. Stol, M. 1976-1980. Kanal (isation) A. Philologisch, Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorederasiatischen Archäologie, Fünfter Band, D. E Edzard (Hgg.). Berlin-New York, 1976-1980: 355-365.
  55. Streck, M. 2006-2008, Quelle. A. In Mesopotmaien, Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorederasiatischen Archäologie, Elfter Band, M. P Streck (Hgg.), Berlin-New York: 2006-2008, 201-202.
  56. Taner Tarhan, M. 2021. The Capital City Tushpa/Van Citadel, in: Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (ed.) Archaeology and History of Urartu (Biainili). Colloquia Antiqua 28: Dedicated to the memory of Prof. Altan Çilingiroğlu: 681-757. Leuven – Paris – Bristol, CT: Peeters.
  57. Tokhatyan, K. 2015. Hayastani zhayŕapatkernerǝ nakhnadaryan arvesti hamatek’stum (The Petroglyphs of Armenia in the Primitive Art Context), “Lraber hasarakakan gitut’yunneri” (Herald of Social Sciences), N 2, 368-381 (in Armenian).
  58. Trever, K. 1953. Ōch’erki po istorii kul’tury drewnej Armenii (II v. do n. ē. – IV v. n. ē.) (Essays on the History of Culture of Ancient Armenia. II c. BC – IV c. CE), Moscow-Leningrad: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the SSSR (in Russian).
  59. Yovsēp’ean, G. 1969. Khałbakeank’ kam Pŕosheank’ Hayots patmut’ean mēj (Khaghbakyans or Proshyans in Armenian history), 2nd publication, Antilias-Lebanon: Publishing house of the Armenian Church Catholicosate of Cilicia (in Armenian).

Creative Commons Licence
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License